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Brahmagupta
Brahmagupta ( ) (598–668) was an India n mathematician and an astronomer. Brahmagupta, whose father was Jisnugupta, wrote important works on mathematics and astronomy. In particular he wrote Brahmasphutasiddhanta (The Opening of the Universe), in 628. The work was written in 25 chapters and Brahmagupta tells us in the text that he wrote it at Bhillamala which today is the city of Bhinmal. This was the capital of the territory ruled by the Gurjara dynasty. Life and work Brahmagupta was born in 598 CE in Bhinmal city in the state of Rajasthan of northwest India. He likely lived most of his life in Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal in Rajasthan) in the empire of Harsha during the reign (and possibly under the patronage) of King Vyaghramukha. As a result, Brahmagupta is often referred to as Bhillamalacarya, that is, the teacher from Bhillamala Bhinmal. He was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, and during his tenure there wrote four texts on mathematics and astronomy: the Cadamekela in 624, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628, the Khandakhadyaka in 665, and the Durkeamynarda in 672. The Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Corrected Treatise of Brahma) is arguably his most famous work. The historian al-Biruni (c. 1050) in his book Tariq al-Hind states that the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun had an embassy in India and from India a book was brought to Baghdad which was translated into Arabic as Sindhind. It is generally presumed that Sindhind is none other than Brahmagupta's Brahmasphuta-siddhanta. Zero and four fundamental operations first appeared in Brahmasputa siddhanta. Although Brahmagupta was familiar with the works of astronomers following the tradition of Aryabhatiya, it is not known if he was familiar with the work of Bhaskara I, a contemporary. Brahmagupta had a plethora of criticism directed towards the work of rival astronomers, and in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta is found one of the earliest attested schisms among Indian mathematicians. The division was primarily about the application of mathematics to the physical world, rather than about the mathematics itself. In Brahmagupta's case, the disagreements stemmed largely from the choice of astronomical parameters and theories. Critiques of rival theories appear throughout the first ten astronomical chapters and the eleventh chapter is entirely devoted to criticism of these theories, although no criticisms appear in the twelfth and eighteenth chapters. Mathematics Brahmagupta's most famous work is his Brahmasphudiasiddhanta. It is composed in elliptic verse, as was common practice in Indian mathematics, and consequently has a poetic ring to it. As no proofs are given, it is not known how Brahmagupta's mathematics was derived.Brahmagupta biography Algebra Brahmagupta gave the solution of the general linear equation in chapter eighteen of Brahmasphutasiddhanta, 18.43 The difference between rupas, when inverted and divided by the difference of the unknowns, is the unknown in the equation. The rupas are on the side below that from which the square and the unknown are to be subtracted. Which is a solution equivalent to x = \tfrac{e-c}{b-d} , where rupas represents constants. He further gave two equivalent solutions to the general quadratic equation, 18.44. Diminish by the middle number the square-root of the rupas multiplied by four times the square and increased by the square of the middle number; divide the remainder by twice the square. result is the middle number. 18.45. Whatever is the square-root of the rupas multiplied by the square and increased by the square of half the unknown, diminish that by half the unknown and divide remainder by its square. result is the unknown. Which are, respectively, solutions equivalent to, : x = \frac{\sqrt{4ac+b^2}-b}{2a} and : x = \frac{\sqrt{ac+\tfrac{b^2}{4}}-\tfrac{b}{2}}{a} He went on to solve systems of simultaneous indeterminate equations stating that the desired variable must first be isolated, and then the equation must be divided by the desired variable's coefficient. In particular, he recommended using "the pulverizer" to solve equations with multiple unknowns. 18.51. Subtract the colors different from the first color. remainder divided by the first coefficient is the measure of the first. Terms two by two are considered reduced to similar divisors, so on repeatedly. If there are many colors, the pulverizer to be used. Like the algebra of Diophantus, the algebra of Brahmagupta was syncopated. Addition was indicated by placing the numbers side by side, subtraction by placing a dot over the subtrahend, and division by placing the divisor below the dividend, similar to our notation but without the bar. Multiplication, evolution, and unknown quantities were represented by abbreviations of appropriate terms. "he was the first one to give a general solution of the linear Diophantine equation ax + by = c, where a, b, and c are integers. ... It is greatly to the credit of Brahmagupta that he gave all integral solutions of the linear Diophantine equation, whereas Diophantus himself had been satisfied to give one particular solution of an indeterminate equation. Inasmuch as Brahmagupta used some of the same examples as Diophantus, we see again the likelihood of Greek influence in India - or the possibility that they both made use of a common source, possibly from Babylonia. It is interesting to note also that the algebra of Brahmagupta, like that of Diophantus, was syncopated. Addition was indicated by juxtaposition, subtraction by placing a dot over the subtrahend, and division by placing the divisor below the dividend, as in our fractional notation but without the bar. The operations of multiplication and evolution (the taking of roots), as well as unknown quantities, were represented by abbreviations of appropriate words." The extent of Greek influence on this syncopation, if any, is not known and it is possible that both Greek and Indian syncopation may be derived from a common Babylonian source. Arithmetic/math In the beginning of chapter twelve of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, entitled Calculation, Brahmagupta details operations on fractions. The reader is expected to know the basic arithmetic operations as far as taking the square root, although he explains how to find the cube and cube-root of an integer and later gives rules facilitating the computation of squares and square roots. He then gives rules for dealing with five types of combinations of fractions, \tfrac{a}{c} + \tfrac{b}{c} , \tfrac{a}{c} \cdot \tfrac{b}{d} , \tfrac{a}{1} + \tfrac{b}{d} , \tfrac{a}{c} + \tfrac{b}{d} \cdot \tfrac{a}{c} = \tfrac{a(d+b)}{cd} , and \tfrac{a}{c} - \tfrac{b}{d} \cdot \tfrac{a}{c} = \tfrac{a(d-b)}{cd} . Series Brahmagupta then goes on to give the sum of the squares and cubes of the first n''integers. 12.20. The sum of the squares is that sum multiplied by twice the of steps increased by one and divided by three. The sum of the cubes is the square of that sum Piles of these with identical balls also be computed. It is important to note here Brahmagupta found the result in terms of the ''sum of the first n'' integers, rather than in terms of ''n as is the modern practice. He gives the sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers as n(n+1)(2n+1)/6 and the sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers as (n(n+1)/2)². Zero Brahmagupta made use of an important concept in mathematics, the number zero. The Brahmasphutasiddhanta is the earliest known text to treat zero as a number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit in representing another number as was done by the Babylonians or as a symbol for a lack of quantity as was done by Ptolemy and the Romans. In chapter eighteen of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, Brahmagupta describes operations on negative numbers. He first describes addition and subtraction, 18.30. sum of two positives is positives, of two negatives negative; of a positive and a negative sum is their difference; if they are equal it is zero. The sum of a negative and zero is negative, that of a positive and zero positive, that of two zeros zero. ... 18.32. A negative minus zero is negative, a positive zero positive; zero zero is zero. When a positive is to be subtracted from a negative or a negative from a positive, then it is to be added. He goes on to describe multiplication, 18.33. The product of a negative and a positive is negative, of two negatives positive, and of positives positive; the product of zero and a negative, of zero and a positive, or of two zeros is zero. But then he spoils the matter some what when he describes division, 18.34. A positive divided by a positive or a negative divided by a negative is positive; a zero divided by a zero is zero; a positive divided by a negative is negative; a negative divided by a positive is also negative. 18.35. A negative or a positive divided by zero has that zero as its divisor, or zero divided by a negative or a positive that negative or positive as its divisor. The square of a negative or of a positive is positive; square of zero is zero. That of which square is the square is its square-root. Here Brahmagupta states that \tfrac{0}{0} = 0 and as for the question of \tfrac{a}{0} where a \neq 0 he did not commit himself. His rules for arithmetic on negative numbers and zero are quite close to the modern understanding, except that in modern mathematics division by zero is left undefined. Diophantine analysis Pythagorean triples In chapter twelve of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, Brahmagupta finds Pythagorean triples, 12.39. The height of a mountain multiplied by a given multiplier is the distance to a city; it is not erased. When it is divided by the multiplier increased by two it is the leap of one of the two who make the same journey. or in other words, for a given length m'' and an arbitrary multiplier ''x, let a = mx and b = m + mx/(x + 2). Then m'', ''a, and b'' form a Pythagorean triple. Pell's equation Brahmagupta went on to give a recurrence relation for generating solutions to certain instances of Diophantine equations of the second degree such as Nx^2 + 1 = y^2 (called Pell's equation) by using the Euclidean algorithm. The Euclidean algorithm was known to him as the "pulverizer" since it breaks numbers down into ever smaller pieces. The nature of squares: 18.64. down twice the square-root of a given square by a multiplier and increased or diminished by an arbitrary number. The product product of the first pair, multiplied by the multiplier, with the product of the last pair, is the last computed. 18.65. The sum of the thunderbolt products is the first. The additive is equal to the product of the additives. The two square-roots, divided by the additive or the subtractive, are the additive ''rupas. The key to his solution was the identity, : (x^2_1 - Ny^2_1)(x^2_2 - Ny^2_2) = (x_1 x_2 + Ny_1 y_2)^2 - N(x_1 y_2 + x_2 y_1)^2 which is a generalization of an identity that was discovered by Diophantus, : (x^2_1 - y^2_1)(x^2_2 - y^2_2) = (x_1 x_2 + y_1 y_2)^2 - (x_1 y_2 + x_2 y_1)^2. Using his identity and the fact that if (x_1, y_1) and (x_2, y_2) are solutions to the equations x^2 - Ny^2 = k_1 and x^2 - Ny^2 = k_2 , respectively, then (x_1 x_2 + N y_1 y_2, x_1 y_2 + x_2 y_1) is a solution to x^2 - Ny^2 = k_1 k_2 , he was able to find integral solutions to the Pell's equation through a series of equations of the form x^2 - Ny^2 = k_i . Unfortunately, Brahmagupta was not able to apply his solution uniformly for all possible values of N'', rather he was only able to show that if x^2 - Ny^2 = k has an integral solution for k = \pm 1, \pm 2, \pm 4 then x^2 - Ny^2 = 1 has a solution. The solution of the general Pell's equation would have to wait for Bhaskara II in c. 1150 CE. Geometry Brahmagupta's formula Brahmagupta's most famous result in geometry is his formula for cyclic quadrilaterals. Given the lengths of the sides of any cyclic quadrilateral, Brahmagupta gave an approximate and an exact formula for the figure's area, 12.21. The approximate area is the product of the halves of the sums of the sides and opposite sides of a triangle and a quadrilateral. The accurate area is the square root from the product of the halves of the sums of the sides diminished by each side of the quadrilateral. So given the lengths ''p, q'', ''r and s'' of a cyclic quadrilateral, the approximate area is (\tfrac{p + r}{2}) (\tfrac{q + s}{2}) while, letting t = \tfrac{p + q + r + s}{2} , the exact area is : \sqrt{(t - p)(t - q)(t - r)(t - s)}. Although Brahmagupta does not explicitly state that these quadrilaterals are cyclic, it is apparent from his rules that this is the case. Heron's formula is a special case of this formula and it can be derived by setting one of the sides equal to zero. Triangles Brahmagupta dedicated a substantial portion of his work to geometry. One theorem states that the two lengths of a triangle's base when divided by its altitude then follows, 12.22. The base decreased and increased by the difference between the squares of the sides divided by the base; when divided by two they are the true segments. The perpendicular altitude is the square-root from the square of a side diminished by the square of its segment. Thus the lengths of the two segments are b \pm (c^2 - a^2)/b . He further gives a theorem on rational triangles. A triangle with rational sides ''a, b'', ''c and rational area is of the form: : a = \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{u^2}{v}+v\right), \ \ b = \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{u^2}{w}+w\right), \ \ c = \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{u^2}{v} - v + \frac{u^2}{w} - w\right) for some rational numbers u'', ''v, and w''. Brahmagupta's theorem Brahmagupta continues, 12.23. The square-root of the sum of the two products of the sides and opposite sides of a non-unequal quadrilateral is the diagonal. The square of the diagonal is diminished by the square of half the sum of the base and the top; the square-root is the perpendicular altitudes. So, in a "non-unequal" cyclic quadrilateral (that is, an isosceles trapezoid), the length of each diagonal is \sqrt{pr + qs} . He continues to give formulas for the lengths and areas of geometric figures, such as the circumradius of an isosceles trapezoid and a scalene quadrilateral, and the lengths of diagonals in a scalene cyclic quadrilateral. This leads up to Brahmagupta's famous theorem, 12.30-31. Imaging two triangles within cyclic quadrilateral with unequal sides, the two diagonals are the two bases. Their two segments are separately the upper and lower segments formed at the intersection of the diagonals. The two segments of the two diagonals are two sides in a triangle; the base the quadrilateral is the base of the triangle. Its perpendicular is the lower portion of the central perpendicular; the upper portion of the central perpendicular is half of the sum of the sides perpendiculars diminished by the lower of the central perpendicular. Pi In verse 40, he gives values of [[pi|π'']], 12.40. The diameter and the square of the radius each multiplied by 3 are respectively the practical circumference and the area a circle. The accurate values are the square-roots from the squares of those two multiplied by ten. So Brahmagupta uses 3 as a "practical" value of π'', and \sqrt{10} as an "accurate" value of ''π. Measurements and constructions In some of the verses before verse 40, Brahmagupta gives constructions of various figures with arbitrary sides. He essentially manipulated right triangles to produce isosceles triangles, scalene triangles, rectangles, isosceles trapezoids, isosceles trapezoids with three equal sides, and a scalene cyclic quadrilateral. After giving the value of pi, he deals with the geometry of plane figures and solids, such as finding volumes and surface areas (or empty spaces dug out of solids). He finds the volume of rectangular prisms, pyramids, and the frustrum of a square pyramid. He further finds the average depth of a series of pits. For the volume of a frustum of a pyramid, he gives the "pragmatic" value as the depth times the square of the mean of the edges of the top and bottom faces, and he gives the "superficial" volume as the depth times their mean area." Trigonometry In Chapter 2 of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, entitled Planetary True Longitudes, Brahmagupta presents a sine table: 2.2-5. The sines: The Progenitors, twins; Ursa Major, twins, the Vedas; the gods, fires, six; flavors, dice, the gods; the moon, five, the sky, the moonl the moon, arrows, suns ... Here Brahmagupta uses names of objects to represent the digits of place-value numerals, as was common with numerical data in Sanskrit treatises. Progenitors represents the 14 Progenitors ("Manu") in Indian cosmology or 14, "twins" means 2, "Ursa Major" represents the seven stars of Ursa Major or 7, "Vedas" refers to the 4 Vedas or 4, dice represents the number of sides of the tradition die or 6, and so on. This information can be translated into the list of sines, 214, 427, 638, 846, 1051, 1251, 1446, 1635, 1817, 1991, 2156, 2312, 1459, 2594, 2719, 2832, 2933, 3021, 3096, 3159, 3207, 3242, 3263, and 3270, with the radius being 3270. In his Paitamahasiddhanta, Brahmagupta uses the initial sine value of 225 with a radius of approximately 3438, although the rest of the sine table is lost. The value of 3438 for the radius is a traditional value that was also used by Aryabhata, although it is not known why Brahmagupta used 3270 instead of the 3438 in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta. Astronomy It was through the ''Brahmasphutasiddhanta that the Arabs learned of Indian astronomy.Brahmagupta, and the influence on Arabia. Retrieved 23 December 2007. The famous Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur (712–775) founded Baghdad, which is situated on the banks of the Tigris, and made it a center of learning. The caliph invited a scholar of Ujjain by the name of Kankah in 770 A.D. Kankah used the Brahmasphutasiddhanta to explain the Hindu system of arithmetic astronomy. Muhammad al-Fazari translated Brahmugupta's work into Arabic upon the request of the caliph. In chapter seven of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, entitled Lunar Crescent, Brahmagupta rebuts the idea that the Moon is farther from the Earth than the Sun, an idea which is maintained in scriptures. He does this by explaining the illumination of the Moon by the Sun. 7.1. If the moon were above the sun, how would the power of waxing and waning, etc., be produced from calculation of the of the moon? the near half be always bright. 7.2. In the same way that the half seen by the sun of a pot standing in sunlight is bright, and the unseen half dark, so is illumination of the moon it is beneath the sun. 7.3. The brightness is increased in the direction of the sun. At the end of a bright waxing half-month, the near half is bright and the far half dark. Hence, the elevation of the horns the crescent can be derived from calculation. ... He explains that since the Moon is closer to the Earth than the Sun, the degree of the illuminated part of the Moon depends on the relative positions of the Sun and the Moon, and this can be computed from the size of the angle between the two bodies. Some of the important contributions made by Brahmagupta in astronomy are: methods for calculating the position of heavenly bodies over time (ephemerides), their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of solar and lunar eclipses.Dick Teresi, Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science, Simon and Schuster, 2002. p. 135. ISBN 074324379X. Brahmagupta criticized the Puranic view that the Earth was flat or hollow. Instead, he observed that the Earth and heaven were spherical and that the Earth is moving. In 1030, the Muslim astronomer Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni, in his Ta'rikh al-Hind, later translated into Latin as Indica, commented on Brahmagupta's work and wrote that critics argued: According to al-Biruni, Brahmagupta responded to these criticisms with the following argument on gravitation: About the Earth's gravity he said: "Bodies fall towards the earth as it is in the nature of the earth to attract bodies, just as it is in the nature of water to flow."Thomas Khoshy, Elementary Number Theory with Applications, Academic Press, 2002, p. 567. ISBN 0124211712. Citations and footnotes References * * * * See also * Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity * Brahmagupta's formula * Brahmagupta theorem * Chakravala method External links * Brahmagupta's Biography * Brahmagupta's Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta English introduction, Sanskrit text, Sanskrit and Hindi commentaries (PDF) Category:Ancient Indian mathematicians Category:Mathematicians